Use the properties on this tab to configure the representation of cross section and single line symbols in detail drawings. Most elements can be considered metals. Steel is an alloy of iron with typically a few percent of carbon to improve its strength and fracture resistance compared to iron. Shop for Mens & Women's Footwear, Apparel & Skateboarding Gear on the Official Website [33][42], The manufacture of what came to be called Wootz, or Damascus steel, famous for its durability and ability to hold an edge, may have been taken by the Arabs from Persia, who took it from India. Smelting, using carbon to reduce iron oxides, results in an alloy (pig iron) that retains too much carbon to be called steel. Steel is distinguishable from wrought iron (now largely obsolete), which may contain a small amount of carbon but large amounts of slag. Zu den Edelstählen zählen zum Beispiel hochreine Stähle, bei denen durch einen besonderen Herstellungsprozess Bestandteile wie Aluminium und Silizium aus der Schmelze ausgeschieden werden, oder zum Beispiel auch hochlegierte Werkzeugstähle, die für eine spätere Wärmebehandlung vorgesehen sind. Element for your design stock vector 354944274 from Depositphotos collection of millions of premium high-resolution stock photos, vector images and illustrations. [16] Sometimes after a steel's final rolling, it is heat treated for strength; however, this is relatively rare. There are several commercially available grades of AHSS, such as dual-phase steel, which is heat-treated to contain both a ferritic and martensitic microstructure to produce formable, high strength steel. Steel manufactured after World War II became contaminated with radionuclides by nuclear weapons testing. This process, known as smelting, was first applied to metals with lower melting points, such as tin, which melts at about 250 °C (482 °F), and copper, which melts at about 1,100 °C (2,010 °F), and the combination, bronze, which has a melting point lower than 1,083 °C (1,981 °F). Cross Section line type Selects the cross section symbol line type presented in the drawing Many other elements may be present or added. [6], To inhibit corrosion, at least 11% chromium is added to steel so that a hard oxide forms on the metal surface; this is known as stainless steel. That's because steel is not a chemical element. [6] Carbon steel, composed simply of iron and carbon, accounts for 90% of steel production. Element … Irradiation turned the Fe 3+ ions into Fe 4+, which in the crystal lattice causes a violet color. [35] A 200 BC Tamil trade guild in Tissamaharama, in the South East of Sri Lanka, brought with them some of the oldest iron and steel artifacts and production processes to the island from the classical period. Advance Concrete users can also add annotations on formwork elements by using "Create an annotation" for a single element or "Create multiple annotations" which is used for adding annotations for multiple elements at the same time. The definition of carbon steel from the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) states: . In addition to steel, this symbol also represented a substance known as antimonium sulphuratum, a compound of the materials antimony and sulphur, in 18th century chemistry. Another 19th-century steelmaking process was the Siemens-Martin process, which complemented the Bessemer process. Iron is a group 6 and period 4 metal. - Buy this stock vector and explore similar vectors at Adobe Stock Illustration about Vector illustration of coil and metal logo. Interactive periodic table with up-to-date element property data collected from authoritative sources. This was followed by the open-hearth furnace and then the Bessemer process in England in the mid-19th For these elements, the symbol usually refers to an older element name that isn't used anymore. Dp: Decipium - Rare earth metal that proved to be a mixture of the elements samarium, neodymium and praseodymium. [65], Steel is one of the world's most-recycled materials, with a recycling rate of over 60% globally;[66] in the United States alone, over 82,000,000 metric tons (81,000,000 long tons; 90,000,000 short tons) were recycled in the year 2008, for an overall recycling rate of 83%. [4] Certain compositions of cast iron, while retaining the economies of melting and casting, can be heat treated after casting to make malleable iron or ductile iron objects. Below you may find Chemical element used in hardening steel and glassmaking; symbol B crossword clue answers Mirror Quiz Crossword Puzzle. Herein, we briefly introduce the effect of these elements. century. Carbon contents higher than those of steel make a brittle alloy commonly called pig iron. Vector design of coil and metal sign. Iron is notable for being the final element produced by stellar nucleosynthesis, and thus the heaviest element which does not require a supernova or similarly cataclysmic event for its formation. Nickel Pig Iron Steel Chemical Element Diagram, Symbol PNG. Die Stahlgruppennummern für Edelstähle nach DIN EN 10027-2 kennen folgende Bezeichnungen: 1. Thanks god you are in the right site! It was originally created from a number of different materials including various trace elements, apparently ultimately from the writings of Zosimos of Panopolis. [5] Small quantities of iron were smelted in ancient times, in the solid state, by heating the ore in a charcoal fire and then welding the clumps together with a hammer and in the process squeezing out the impurities. Sulphur decreases notch impact toughness, reduces weldability and decreases ductility. This clue belongs to Mirror Quiz Crossword June 28 2020 Answers. It has many tricky […] In this application the annealing (tempering) process transforms some of the martensite into cementite, or spheroidite and hence it reduces the internal stresses and defects. Today, steel is one of the most common manmade materials in the world, with more than 1.6 billion tons produced annually. In pure iron, the crystal structure has relatively little resistance to the iron atoms slipping past one another, and so pure iron is quite ductile, or soft and easily formed. Slabs are hot or cold rolled into sheet metal or plates. Carbon is one of the most important existing chemical in the world. Below 0.2% carbon, it takes on a ferrite BCC crystal form, but at higher carbon content it takes a body-centered tetragonal (BCT) structure. (1998) "Electric Furnace Steelmaking", in, Steel Construction Manual, 8th Edition, second revised edition, American Institute of Steel Construction, 1986, ch. You should get the quotation(s) in 4 hours . This is an alphabetical list of alloys grouped according to base metal. PART C) Steel is a mixture of iron and a certain percentage of carbon that allows the strength and fracture resistance to be modified. Most of the more commonly used steel alloys are categorized into various grades by standards organizations. [11] The steel is then tempered, which is just a specialized type of annealing, to reduce brittleness. Der Name HSS leitet sich vom englischen „High Speed Steel“ ab, was häufig mit Hochleistung-Schnellschnittstahl übersetzt wird. As the rate of cooling is increased the carbon will have less time to migrate to form carbide at the grain boundaries but will have increasingly large amounts of pearlite of a finer and finer structure within the grains; hence the carbide is more widely dispersed and acts to prevent slip of defects within those grains, resulting in hardening of the steel. 1. Mild steel replaced wrought iron. [20][21] Horace identifies steel weapons such as the falcata in the Iberian Peninsula, while Noric steel was used by the Roman military. Steel is used in a variety of other construction materials, such as bolts, nails and screws and other household products and cooking utensils.[80]. Graphic of coil and steel stock vector illustration. In fact, there are eleven of the abbreviations for the elements which don't seem to match the modern name. There are many types of heat treating processes available to steel. In steel, small amounts of carbon, other elements, and inclusions within the iron act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of dislocations. Tioneer Stainless Steel Earth Element Rune Symbol Engraved Small Oval Charm Keychain Keyring. 1 pp. The most common are annealing, quenching, and tempering. This is a list of elements by atomic number with symbol. [76], Eglin steel uses a combination of over a dozen different elements in varying amounts to create a relatively low-cost steel for use in bunker buster weapons. Chemical symbol for chromium is Cr, atomic number 24, melting point 1890 C, density 7.2. In modern steel mills these processes often occur in one assembly line, with ore coming in and finished steel products coming out. Depending on the carbon content, the martensitic phase takes different forms. Like all alkali metals, lithium is highly reactive and flammable, and is stored in mineral oil. Even in a narrow range of concentrations of mixtures of carbon and iron that make a steel, a number of different metallurgical structures, with very different properties can form. These forms depend on temperature. With modern steelmaking techniques such as powder metal forming, it is possible to make very high-carbon (and other alloy material) steels, but such are not common. A List of the Elements of the Periodic Table, Words Made Using Periodic Table Element Symbols, 20 Examples of Elements and Their Symbols, Element Names That Can Be Spelled Using Element Symbols, Elements in the History of the Periodic Table. Between 2000 and 2005, world steel demand increased by 6%. Those are subtle reminders of the history of the Periodic Table and the process of the discovery of elements over the millennia. Check out 'Mirror quiz' answers for TODAY! Here is the answer for: Chemical element used in hardening steel and glassmaking; symbol B crossword clue answers, solutions for the popular game Mirror Quiz Crossword. List of elements Atomic Number Name Symbo Group Period Number Block State at. Chemical Composition of S460 Structural Steel. Vector illustration of coil and metal icon. Left: High-alloyed steel knife made of approx. In fact, there are eleven of the abbreviations for the elements which don't seem to match the modern name. It is a metal in the first transition series. If the question is asking what the chemical symbol for steel is, the bad news is that there isn't one. All of these temperatures could be reached with ancient methods used since the Bronze Age. The chemical composition of structural steel is very important and highly regulated. It is the interaction of the allotropes of iron with the alloying elements, primarily carbon, that gives steel and cast iron their range of unique properties. Since 2000, several Indian[62] and Chinese steel firms have risen to prominence,[according to whom?] W stands for tungsten because it was first identified in 1780 within the mineral known as wolframite, by French scientist Antoine Lavoisier (1743–1794). In Generation II, the Steel type was created to balance out the previously overpowered Normal and Psychic types, as both types are resisted by Steel. The symbol and name were used for element 105. Elemental Magic is basically a Telekinetic ability to manipulate the element they are born with. such as Tata Steel (which bought Corus Group in 2007), Baosteel Group and Shagang Group. Five elements theory is the basis of traditional Chinese medicine, and is part of feng shui. [74] Corrosion-resistant steels are abbreviated as CRES. Annealing is the process of heating the steel to a sufficiently high temperature to relieve local internal stresses. She has taught science courses at the high school, college, and graduate levels. [4] In contrast, cast iron does undergo eutectic reaction. Uploaded By raflynaufalmuzakki. By far the most widely used material for building the world’s infrastructure and industries, it is used to fabricate everything from sewing needles to oil tankers. Heat treatment is effective on compositions above the eutectoid composition (hypereutectoid) of 0.8% carbon. Illustration of metal, detail, icon - 187891234 PNG (72dpi) Babbeles3a Send Message. In a hypereutectoid composition (greater than 0.8% carbon), the carbon will first precipitate out as large inclusions of cementite at the austenite grain boundaries until the percentage of carbon in the grains has decreased to the eutectoid composition (0.8% carbon), at which point the pearlite structure forms. [81] Carbon fiber is replacing steel in some cost insensitive applications such as sports equipment and high end automobiles. It may also contain other elements, such as manganese. In 327 BC, Alexander the Great was rewarded by the defeated King Porus, not with gold or silver but with 30 pounds of steel. Hypoeutectoid steel does not benefit from heat treatment. History of the Abbreviations . It has many tricky question which will […] [46], Since the 17th century, the first step in European steel production has been the smelting of iron ore into pig iron in a blast furnace. However, the availability of plastics in the latter part of the 20th century allowed these materials to replace steel in some applications due to their lower fabrication cost and weight. [4] Tool steel is generally used in axes, drills, and other devices that need a sharp, long-lasting cutting edge. washing machines), heavy equipment such as bulldozers, office furniture, steel wool, tool and armour in the form of personal vests or vehicle armour (better known as rolled homogeneous armour in this role). The carbon content of steel is between 0.002% and 2.14% by weight for plain carbon steel (iron–carbon alloys). Chemical symbol for nickel is Ni, atomic number 28, melting point 1453 C, density 8.9 Photo: Thomas Nissen (Computer graphics) These are separated from the previous symbols by a plus sign (S 275 J0+A). Most chemical elements are represented symbolically by two letters, generally the first two in their name. Illustration of uncork, open, alcohol - 170675332 [63] In 2005, the British Geological Survey stated China was the top steel producer with about one-third of the world share; Japan, Russia, and the US followed respectively. [67], As more steel is produced than is scrapped, the amount of recycled raw materials is about 40% of the total of steel produced - in 2016, 1,628,000,000 tonnes (1.602×109 long tons; 1.795×109 short tons) of crude steel was produced globally, with 630,000,000 tonnes (620,000,000 long tons; 690,000,000 short tons) recycled. With care, the carbon content could be controlled by moving it around in the fire. By 2000, the number of steelworkers fell to 224,000. Carbon is the 6th important element in the periodic table. Characteristics Defense. One such furnace was found in Samanalawewa and archaeologists were able to produce steel as the ancients did. On our website you will be able to find the correct answers to the most difficult and challenging crossword clues every day. In the following table, the chemical composition of S460 is displayed. There is no thermal activation energy for the transformation from austenite to martensite. Vanadium was discovered (1801) by the Spanish mineralogist Andrés Manuel del Río, Ph.D., Biomedical Sciences, University of Tennessee at Knoxville, B.A., Physics and Mathematics, Hastings College. [22], The reputation of Seric iron of South India (wootz steel) grew considerably in the rest of the world. Annealing goes through three phases: recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth. This was still the usual raw material source in the 19th century, almost as long as the process was used. Metalloid element used in hardening steel; symbol B. [47], The production of steel by the cementation process was described in a treatise published in Prague in 1574 and was in use in Nuremberg from 1601. HRC： The hardness was obtained by applying 588N pressure at the diamond cone with 120° vertex angle for testing samples. Common alloying elements include: manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, boron, titanium, vanadium, tungsten, cobalt, and niobium. Web element of coil and steel stock symbol for web. The symbol for copper is Cu while the symbol for tin is Sn. History. Na Sodium (natrium in Latin, and natron in Arabic). It is largely iron, but has many other elements in it, alloying elements as well as impurities and residuals. Iron is a chemical element with the symbol Fe (from Latin: ferrum) and atomic number 26. Attached subscripts or superscripts specifying a nuclide or molecule have the following meanings and positions: The nucleon number (mass number) is shown in the left superscript position (e.g., 14 N). Share. [53] It consisted of co-melting bar iron (or steel scrap) with pig iron. [68], Modern steels are made with varying combinations of alloy metals to fulfill many purposes. Eight of these oddities are Au (gold), Ag (silver), Cu (copper), FE (iron), SN (tin), Pb (lead), Sb (antimony), and Hg (mercury): All were among the elements recognized by the ancient Greeks and Romans, and the abbreviations for those are based on a Latin or Greek term for the element. [69], Recent Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) regulations have given rise to a new variety of steel known as Advanced High Strength Steel (AHSS). Billets are hot or cold rolled into bars, rods, and wire. Look up chemical element names, symbols, atomic masses and other properties, visualize trends, or even test your elements knowledge by playing a periodic table game! Iron is a chemical element with symbol Fe and atomic number 26. It is mainly used in alloys, such as steel. So iron with a lot of carbon added to it becomes very brittle and is unable to respond elastically to dynamic loading. This material is both strong and ductile so that vehicle structures can maintain their current safety levels while using less material. For example, S355K2W is a structural steel that has been hardened, denoted by K2, and has been designed with a chemical composition to withstand increased weathering - W. Be glad because you’ve come to the right place! 193 views. Stahl ist ein Werkstoff, der zum größten Teil aus Eisen besteht. 3 likes. You are here probably looking to find the answer of Chemical element used in hardening steel and glassmaking; symbol B. The new symbol can be found in the symbols library. STP Occurrence Description 1 Hydrogen H 1 1 s Gas Primordial Non-metal 2 Helium He 18 1 s Gas Primordial Noble gas 3 Lithium Li 1 2 s Solid Primordial Alkali metal 4 Steel is an alloy of iron with typically a few percent of carbon to improve its strength and fracture resistance compared to iron. Related Images. 10 bis 19 – unlegierte Edelstähle 2. Basic oxygen steelmaking is superior to previous steelmaking methods because the oxygen pumped into the furnace limited impurities, primarily nitrogen, that previously had entered from the air used,[58] and because, with respect to the open-hearth process, the same quantity of steel from a BOS process is manufactured in one-twelfth the time. Let us take a look at the symbolic meaning of the seven metals of Lead, Tin, Iron, Gold, Mercury, Copper and Silver which are referred to as the ‘Metals of Antiquity’ as they are the metals around which different civilizations were founded. Steel was produced in bloomery furnaces for thousands of years, but its large-scale, industrial use began only after more efficient production methods were devised in the 17th century, with the introduction of the blast furnace and production of crucible steel. Additional elements, most frequently considered undesirable, are also important in steel: phosphorus, sulfur, silicon, and traces of oxygen, nitrogen, and copper. Further refinements in the process, such as basic oxygen steelmaking (BOS), largely replaced earlier methods by further lowering the cost of production and increasing the quality of the final product. Potassium was identified during the Middle Ages, and it's "K" is for kalium, a medieval Latin term for potash. Related Products from Alibaba . nickel steel chemical element diagram nickel pig iron symbol iron isotopes of nickel periodic table nickel sulfate alloy metal extraction du nickel isotope text area organization parallel. No large inclusions of cementite will form at the boundaries in hypoeuctoid steel. The commonly found elements are, Fe, Cr, Ni, Mn, C, Si, S, P, N, Al, As, Be, B, Co, Cu, H, Mg, O, Nb, Se, Ti, W, V, Zr. Get Quotations Now. Our smart data base updates every day and we’ve got the solution to Metalloid element used in hardening steel; symbol B. 1–5, body-centred cubic and face-centred cubic, History of the steel industry (1850–1970), 200 BC Tamil trade guild in Tissamaharama, American Society for Testing and Materials, "(1979). 20 bis 89 – legierte Edelstähle [44] Natural wind was used where the soil containing iron was heated by the use of wood. The early modern crucible steel industry resulted from the invention of Benjamin Huntsman in the 1740s. Every single day you will be able to find on this site all the major crossword puzzle answers for popular publishers such as LA Times, New York Times, WSJ, Universal, USA Today and even some British crosswords like Mirror (all four), The Guardian and Independent. Other special-purpose alloys include weathering steels such as Cor-ten, which weather by acquiring a stable, rusted surface, and so can be used un-painted. It is a fairly soft metal that can dissolve only a small concentration of carbon, no more than 0.005% at 0 °C (32 °F) and 0.021 wt% at 723 °C (1,333 °F). Look up chemical element names, symbols, atomic masses and other properties, visualize trends, or even test your elements knowledge by playing a periodic table game! It may or may not have other elements intentionally alloyed in it to give it different properties, but steel itself is not an element. That's because steel is iron (Fe) with a tiny bit of carbon (C) in it. The modern era in steelmaking began with the introduction of Henry Bessemer's Bessemer process in 1855, the raw material for which was pig iron. The inclusion of carbon in gamma iron is called austenite. 4, April 11, 2002 to April 24, 2002, "India's steel industry steps onto world stage", "Long-term planning needed to meet steel demand", "Steel Industry, in Slump, Looks to Federal Stimulus", "Transformation Induced Plasticity in low alloyed TRIP-steels and microstructure response to a complex stress history", "Transformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP), Twinning Induced Plasticity (TWIP) and Dual-Phase (DP) Steels", Making Steel: Sparrows Point and the Rise and Ruin of American Industrial Might, The Economic History of Steelmaking, 1867–1939: A Study in Competition, The Steel Industry in Japan: A Comparison with Britain, Mill & Mine: The Cf&I in the Twentieth Century, Big Steel: The First Century of the United States Steel Corporation, 1901–2001, MATDAT Database of Properties of Unalloyed, Low-Alloy and High-Alloy Steels, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steel&oldid=993151273, Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages, Short description is different from Wikidata, Articles with unsourced statements from November 2020, Wikipedia articles needing clarification from April 2016, Articles with unsourced statements from January 2017, All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases, Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from October 2016, Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2017, All articles containing potentially dated statements, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Chemical element, symbol se, glassmaking uses; Metalloid element used in hardening steel; symbol b; Element added to steel to make stainless steel; The chemical element of atomic number 33, a brittle steel-grey semimetal; Element with the chemical symbol i; Re is the symbol for this chemical element; Chemical element with symbol u atomic number 92 Historically, most coinage metals (or alloys) are from the three nonradioactive members of group 11 of the periodic table: copper, silver and gold, the copper usually being augmented with tin and often other metals to form bronze.Gold, silver and bronze or copper were the coinage metals of the ancient world, and most medieval coins. [19] Metal production sites in Sri Lanka employed wind furnaces driven by the monsoon winds, capable of producing high-carbon steel. Other materials are often added to the iron/carbon mixture to produce steel with desired properties. 681x767. Most previous furnaces could not reach high enough temperatures to melt the steel. It is suitable for measuring soft metals such as nonferrous metals, annealing, and normalizing steel. Many steel casting buyers and manufacturers hope to control these elements to the most reasonable range to improve the performance of cast steel products. Understanding such properties is essential to making quality steel. Some alloys are listed under more than one element, since the composition of the alloy may vary such that one element is present in a higher concentration than the others. A few isotopes have their own specific symbols rather than just an isotopic detail added to their element symbol. Here you may find the Metalloid element used in hardening steel; symbol B crossword clue answers. This is extremely strong and is used for railway tracks, safes, rifle barrels and prison bars. The carbon no longer fits within the FCC austenite structure, resulting in an excess of carbon. Chemical element with symbol N and atomic number 7. It is alloyed with steel and iron for high-speed tool steel, high-strength low-alloy steel, and wear-resistant cast iron. They are grouped together in the middle to the left-hand side of the periodic table. Each alchemy symbol corresponding to a specific element or compound. In addition, it sees widespread use in major appliances and cars. [4] High strength low alloy steel has small additions (usually < 2% by weight) of other elements, typically 1.5% manganese, to provide additional strength for a modest price increase. Alloy steels are carbon steels with other additives such as nickel, chromium, vanadium, tungsten and manganese. [32] This came to be known as Wootz steel, produced in South India by about sixth century BC and exported globally. [71] Twinning Induced Plasticity (TWIP) steel uses a specific type of strain to increase the effectiveness of work hardening on the alloy. “B” and nitrogen i.e. Element added to steel to make stainless steel . [61], The economic boom in China and India caused a massive increase in the demand for steel. Today, approximately 96% of steel is continuously cast, while only 4% is produced as ingots. Advantages: Iron is the base metal of steel and it can take on two crystalline forms (allotropic forms): body-centred cubic and face-centred cubic. A similar process for case hardening armor and files was described in a book published in Naples in 1589. School Tenth of November Institute of Technology; Course Title MATERIAL 10; Type. Dr. Helmenstine holds a Ph.D. in biomedical sciences and is a science writer, educator, and consultant. It does not create a general softening of the product but only locally relieves strains and stresses locked up within the material. Sources differ on this value so it has been rounded to 2.1%, however the exact value is rather academic because plain-carbon steel is very rarely made with this level of carbon. Those are subtle reminders of the history of the Periodic Table and the process of the discovery of elements over the millennia. Cloche symbol . In case something is wrong or missing you are kindly requested to leave a message below and one of our staff members will be more than happy to help you out. Other elements have symbols that don't seem to relate to their names at all! Thousands of new, high-quality pictures added every day. Lightner Publishing Company (1963), Jones, J.A.T. [48][49][50], In these processes pig iron was refined (fined) in a finery forge to produce bar iron, which was then used in steel-making. “N”. no minimum content is specified or required for chromium, cobalt, molybdenum, nickel, niobium, titanium, tungsten, vanadium, zirconium, or any other element to be added to obtain a desired alloying effect; [26][27][28][29][30][31], Evidence of the earliest production of high carbon steel in India are found in Kodumanal in Tamil Nadu, the Golconda area in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, and in the Samanalawewa areas of Sri Lanka. Whereas pure iron is a relatively soft metal that rusts easily, steel can be hard, tough, and corrosion-resistant. The more open FCC structure of austenite can dissolve considerably more carbon, as much as 2.1%[8] (38 times that of ferrite) carbon at 1,148 °C (2,098 °F), which reflects the upper carbon content of steel, beyond which is cast iron. Below is an alphabetical list of element symbols with the corresponding element name. In case something is wrong or missing you are kindly requested to leave a message below and one of our staff members will be more than happy to help you out. 588N pressure at the end of the Bessemer process in England in the following table, the austenite undergoes phase... - 187891234 nickel pig iron ferritic stainless steels, such as stadiums and skyscrapers bridges! Electric arc furnaces ( EAF ) are a common method of reprocessing scrap metal to create the austenite a.: element used in hardening steel ; symbol B the engineer and will change with specific grades depending on carbon! The ancients did Metalloid element used in hardening steel and metallic alloys S ) in 4 hours shipbuilding pipelines! In addition, it is the Mirror Quiz crossword December 30 2017...., though, ArcelorMittal is the Mirror Quiz crossword December 24 2016 answers grades. 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